Pregnancy-Related Issues

Hormonal changes during pregnancy can affect the hair in various ways, including making dry hair oilier (or drier), and oily hair drier (or oilier).  When excess androgen hormones are produced, the result can be oily hair and skin.

Some women have nipple discharge very early in pregnancy.

The palms of the hands can become pink or red during pregnancy due to increased blood flow.  This should disappear after delivery.

Many pregnant women experience vivid dreams, both pleasant and disturbing.  These appear to be caused by hormonal changes and are a way for an expectant mother to come to terms with the fears that accompany the birth of a child.

Pregnancy is a risk factor for developing a worse form of the disease.  It is possible for an infected mother to transmit the virus to her child via breast milk.

Pregnant women with periodontal disease are statistically more likely to have a baby that is born prematurely, according to a study of more than 2,000 pregnant women.  This connection is not yet fully understood but may be due to underlying inflammation or infections.

Conversely, pregnancy and its related hormonal changes appear to worsen gum disease and tooth loss.  During pregnancy the body experiences hormonal changes that can affect many tissues, including the gums.  Gums can become sensitive and at times react strongly to the hormonal fluctuations, which may in turn increase the susceptibility to gum disease.

There is a risk of fetal malformations, including increases in neural tube defects, without an adequate amount of manganese.

Women who smoke during pregnancy are at risk of premature birth, pregnancy complications, low-birthweight infants, stillbirth and a higher overall rate of infant mortality.  For pregnant women and new mothers, smoking puts their baby at risk of sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), poor lung development, asthma and respiratory infections.  Women who smoke during pregnancy also have an increased risk of having a baby with clubfoot.

Acetone and other ketones (part of being in a state of ketosis brought on by following a low-carbohydrate diet) seems to cause brain damage in the fetus which may result in the baby being born mentally retarded. [Maryland State Medical Journal 1974: p.70]

Despite the fact that ketones seemed to cause "significant neurological impairment" and an average loss of about 10 IQ points was well known and arousing "considerable concern" years before Atkins published his Diet Revolution [Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism 12(1983): p.413], Atkins nonetheless wrote "I recommend this diet to all my pregnant patients." [Atkins, RC. Dr. Atkins Diet Revolution. David McKay Company, Inc., 1972]

After enough pressure from the AMA, Atkins finally relented.  "There's one other point I'm really sorry about."  Atkins finally admitted, "I now understand that ketosis during pregnancy could result in fetal damage.  My pregnant patients have never had this problem, but I realize I didn't study enough cases to validate my recommendation.  If anyone wants a retraction, I'll be glad to give one." [New York magazine March 1973.]

Aside from increased risk of miscarriage, a Swedish study of 943,000 women found that very thin women are also at risk of severe nausea during pregnancy.  This study also found that women who are underweight before pregnancy are 43% more likely to develop hyperemesis gravidarum, which is non-stop vomiting.

Hormone levels fluctuate at different stages of pregnancy, making it difficult to isolate any underlying imbalances during this time.

Hormone levels fluctuate at different stages of pregnancy, making it difficult to isolate any underlying imbalances during this time.

Pregnancy can cause a significant hormonal imbalance.

Factors such as pregnancy that decrease the flow of bile increase the risk of developing gallstones.

Do not use more than 3-5gm of dried ginger per day during early pregnancy.

Use of orange peel extract is not recommended during pregnancy or while nursing.

Kava use is discouraged during pregnancy due to possible complications.

Parsley contains essential oils; the most important one, apiole, is a kidney stimulant.  Because these essential oils can stimulate uterine contractions, pregnant women should avoid eating large quantities of it.

Saw palmetto should not be taken by women who are pregnant, nursing or trying to conceive, because it affects sex hormone levels.

Vitex should not be used by pregnant women.

Boric acid should not be used when you are pregnant.

BHT should not be used supplementally in pregnancy although there is no evidence that consuming foods where it has been added as a food preservative is harmful.

Human studies have found an increase in the rate of miscarriages, stillbirths, breech births and low birth weight when given in doses greater than 300mg (an amount equal to three cups of coffee) per day.  Pregnant women are also three times slower to metabolize caffeine than nonpregnant women.  Therefore, it is recommended that pregnant women consume less than this amount – in fact some doctors say that coffee should be completely avoided during pregnancy and breast feeding.

Fetuses and newborns cannot metabolize caffeine in their livers, so it remains in their bodies for up to four days, stimulating their nervous system the entire time, causing irritability and sleeping difficulty.  In addition, the use of large amounts of caffeine by a mother during pregnancy may cause problems with the heart rhythm of the fetus.

Studies in animals have linked high blood levels of caffeine to premature birth, delivery complications, low birth weight and birth defects when given in very large doses (amounts equal to 12 to 24 cups of coffee a day), and with bone growth problems when given in smaller doses.

Alcohol is definitely harmful for the baby, no matter how much is consumed, especially during the first three months when the baby is forming.  There is also a definite correlation between the amount of alcohol drunk during pregnancy and the severity of the symptoms, and also a link with the risk of miscarriage and stillbirth.  Evidence shows that even pregnant mothers who only drink in moderation have a greater chance of miscarriage and low birth weight babies than those who do not.

Numerous studies have also shown that heavy drinking is extremely damaging for the baby and has the potential to lead to fetal alcohol syndrome.  Such babies have low birth weight, with a smaller head circumference and mental retardation is often present.  Some affected babies have malformed faces and congenital heart defects.

The current recommendation from doctors and health experts is that pregnant women should not drink at all. If the urge is too strong, one standard drink is the absolute maximum.  However, in the first few weeks of pregnancy, it is difficult to know that you are pregnant and this is a particularly crucial stage for the formation of the baby.  So, if you suspect that you are pregnant, or are planning to conceive, you should stay away from alcohol.  The risk of miscarriage doubles with more than two drinks per day.

Adequate protein intake can prevent preeclampsia, and a higher protein diet can often successfully reverse preeclampsia.

Dr Diana Dow Edwards, a researcher, was funded by Monsanto to study possible birth defects caused by the ingestion of aspartame.  After preliminary data showed damaging information about aspartame, funding for the study was cut off.  A separate genetic pediatrician at Emory University has testified that aspartame is causing birth defects.

In the book, While Waiting: A Prenatal Guidebook by George R. Verrilli, M.D. and Anne Marie Mueser, it is stated that aspartame is suspected of causing brain damage in sensitive individuals: a fetus may be at risk for these effects.  Some researchers have suggested that high doses of aspartame may be associated with problems ranging from dizziness and subtle brain changes to mental retardation.

Based on the recommendations of the Environmental Working Group and the U.S. Public Interest Research Group, it is recommended that shark, swordfish, king mackerel and tilefish, tuna, sea bass, halibut, marlin, pike, Gulf coast oysters and white croaker not be eaten by pregnant women and women of childbearing age who might become pregnant due to mercury contamination.  The report recommends that nursing mothers and young children steer clear of these fish, and that canned tuna, mahi-mahi, cod and pollack should not be eaten more than once a month.

"The widespread contamination of fish with mercury has given its reputation as 'brain food' a new and disturbing connotation.  Mercury is toxic to the developing fetal brain, and exposure in the womb can cause learning deficiencies and delay mental development in children."

A Center for Disease Control report finds that an estimated 375,000 babies being born each year at risk of neurological problems due to exposure to mercury in the womb.  The Mercury Policy Project report indicates that at least 10% of women of childbearing age have levels of mercury in their bodies that exceed what the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency considers acceptable and this translates to nearly six million women.

Fasting should be avoided during pregnancy.

GHB induces "remarkable hypotonia" (muscle relaxation) [Vickers, 1969] and is now gaining popularity in France and Italy as an aid to childbirth.  GHB causes "spectacular action on the dilation of the cervix", decreased anxiety, greater intensity and frequency of uterine contractions, increased sensitivity to oxytocic drugs (used to induce contractions), preservation of reflexes, a lack of respiratory depression in the fetus, and protection against fetal cardiac anoxia (especially in cases where the umbilical cord wraps around the fetus' neck) [Vickers, 1969; Laborit, 1964].

Smoking in pregnancy is very clearly linked to a higher risk of miscarriages, low birth weight babies and premature babies.  There is also a link to risks of stillbirths and babies dying in the first few weeks of life.  This is due to nicotine which decreases the amount of blood delivered to the fetus, therefore less nutrients and oxygen is received by the baby.

The current recommendation of doctors is for the mother to not smoke at all, however if the mother is having difficulty quitting, 3-6 cigarettes a day is the absolute maximum.  If you are a smoker, the best time to stop is before you get pregnant because the first few weeks of pregnancy are crucial to the development of the baby.  Also, you should encourage other members of the family to quit smoking or not to smoke in your presence because passive smoking may be damaging to the mother and fetus.  In addition, smoking around your new-born increases his/her risk of developing asthma and other respiratory disease.

There are essentially no reasons during pregnancy why any woman would be advised to take hormones.

There are essentially no reasons during pregnancy why any woman would be advised to take hormones.

There are essentially no reasons during pregnancy why any woman would be advised to take hormones.

On the basis of theoretical ideas about how melatonin works, some authorities specifically recommend against using it for depression, schizophrenia, autoimmune diseases and other serious illnesses, and in pregnant or nursing women.

There are essentially no reasons during pregnancy why any woman would be advised to take hormones.

Due to concerns regarding radiation exposure to a fetus, bone scans are not generally recommended for women who are or might be pregnant.

Hormone levels fluctuate at different stages of pregnancy, making it difficult to isolate any underlying imbalances during this time.

Children of mothers who took calcium during pregnancy were still reaping the benefits seven years later in one Argentinian study.  Blood pressure was lower in these youngsters – especially among overweight children – than those in the non-supplement-taking group. [Belizan JM, et al. Brit Med J 1997;315(7103): pp.281-5]  Taking calcium may also decrease a woman's chance of developing pre-eclampsia, pregnancy-related hypertension. [Moutquin HM, et al. Can Med Assoc J 1997;157(7): pp.907-19]

A growing baby acquires most of its calcium during the last trimester of pregnancy; an additional amount is needed during breastfeeding.  This translates into a greater need for calcium during and after pregnancy.  A pregnant woman who fails to consume adequate calcium -1,200mg per day is recommended – increases her risk of developing osteoporosis later in life, especially if she becomes pregnant again. [Vandecandelaere M, et al. Rev Med Interne 1997;18(7): pp.571-4]

Low magnesium levels are common among women suffering from severe nausea and vomiting, says Miriam Erick, M.S., R.D., dietetic manager of Clinical Obstetrics at Brigham and Women's Hospital in Boston.  Therefore, magnesium for these expectant moms is critical.  Magnesium can also help treat pregnancy-related leg cramps [Dahle LO, et al. Am J of Obst & Gyn 1995;173: pp.175-180] and alleviate severe pre-eclampsia, a serious condition in which high blood pressure, edema and protein in the urine are present in pregnant women. [Khan KS, Chien Pl. Brit J Obst & Gyn 1997;104(10): pp.1173-9]  Taking prenatal magnesium may also reduce risk for cerebral palsy and mental retardation among very low birth-weight infants. [Schendel DE, et al. J of the AMA 1996;276(22): pp.1805-10]

The U.S. RDA is 320mg; magnesium is more important for later pregnancy but should be safe in small doses throughout pregnancy (around 200mg per day).

Iron is routinely prescribed for pregnant women during the second and third trimesters, when blood volume increases by 50% and the growing baby is also making blood.  Hemoglobin, the blood component that carries oxygen to the cells, is composed in part of iron.  During pregnancy, the baby receives plenty of this critical mineral because the mother's body absorbs iron more efficiently. [Eskeland B, et al. Acta Obstetricia et Gynecologica Scandinavia 1997;76: pp.822-8]

There is some controversy about whether iron supplementation is really needed or effective, except for women such as diabetics or those with anemia, whose iron deficiency is a real threat. [Lao TT, Tami KF. Diabetes Care 1997;20(9): pp.1368-9]  Iron supplementation for anemia often fails because women don't take iron long enough, say researchers at the University of California, Berkeley.  They suggest beginning iron supplementation before conception and continuing until breastfeeding is finished. [Viteri FE. Nutr Rev 1997;55(6): pp.195-9]

The best way to get iron is from natural foods.  Iron supplements may cause nausea and constipation, making the common discomforts of pregnancy worse.  Too much iron is also bad for the circulation.  If a doctor recommends iron supplements, iron chelate is better tolerated by the body and is available from drugstores.  The U.S. RDA is 30mg.

Inadequate amounts of zinc can lead to central nervous system and other malformations, small-for-age babies and miscarriage.  Adding a moderate dose of zinc to your prenatal supplement regimen may also benefit your baby's immunity. [Lastra Md, et al. Arch of Medl Res 1997;28(1): 67-2]

The U.S. RDA is 15mg.

Iodine deficiency during pregnancy and early infancy can result in cretinism (irreversible mental retardation and severe motor impairments).

A small study of infertile women and women with a history of miscarriage suggests that low levels of magnesium may impair reproductive function, and may contribute to miscarriage.  Oxidation, a process that is damaging to cell membranes, can lead to loss of magnesium.  The same study suggests that the antioxidant selenium protects the cell membrane, thereby maintaining appropriate levels of magnesium.  The authors of the study suggest taking both magnesium and selenium supplements.

Women who have miscarried have lower levels of selenium than women who carry a pregnancy to full term.  Although the authors of the above-mentioned study do not specify the exact amount to take, the recommended doses are generally 300 to 400mg per day of magnesium and 200mcg per day of selenium.

There is strong evidence to suggest that children develop improved visual acuity and achieve a higher verbal IQ when breast-fed because they receive a fatty acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), found in breast milk [Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 2001;84: pp.23-7].  The amount of DHA found in breast milk increases with the consumption of oily fish or when otherwise supplemented and decreases when less DHA is consumed.  Indeed, testing has revealed that a child's visual acuity directly correlated with the mother's level of DHA in her red blood cells.

According to an article in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, healthy full-term infants who are breast-fed for at least four months show greater visual perception skills at early childhood than their bottle-fed counterparts.  Testing revealed differences in the maturity of the brain's visual cortex, an important stage in a child's neurological development. [Am J Clin Nutr 2001;73(2): pp.316-22]

Of the 15 factors analyzed that could potentially influence that rate of visual development in infants, breastfeeding for 4 months or more independently had the greatest positive impact.  The only other factor in this study that independently affected the children's stereoacuity at 3.5 years was the mother's consumption of oily fish during pregnancy.

During the last trimester of a pregnancy the mother transfers to her fetus much of the DHA needed for the development of its brain and nervous system.  As a consequence, she may lose as much as 3% of her brain mass during this time and therefore supplemental DHA may help prevent postpartum depression and ensure an adequate supply for the nursing baby.

The DHA content in the mother's diet reflects the amount of DHA passed on to the baby.  If the baby is not breastfed at all, it receives much less DHA, thus hindering and impairing mental and visual acuity.  DHA levels of premature infants are especially low since they miss much of that last trimester.  Premature babies are also more likely to be bottle-fed.

Vegan diets are devoid of EPA and DHA, while vegetarian diets provide small amounts in dairy products.  Vegetarian and vegan women should therefore ensure their diets include sources of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), the precursor of EPA and DHA, during pregnancy and breastfeeding.  Supplemental DHA may be appropriate in some cases.  It is suggested that vegans use plant oils with a low ratio of linoleic acid (Omega-6) to ALA (Omega-3), such as flax or canola, as a higher ratio may inhibit the conversion of ALA to DHA..

Adequate and balanced essential fatty acid intake is important for the optimal neurologic development of the baby.

The need for this vitamin more than doubles during pregnancy.  This need is often not met by the diets of pregnant women, so a supplement of 400mcg to 1mg per day of folic acid is recommended throughout pregnancy.

In 1992, the U.S. Public Health Service recommended that all women of childbearing age consume additional folic acid.  This means that increased consumption of folic acid is crucial not only during pregnancy, but also before conception.  It has been estimated that if all women of childbearing age met this allowance, the number of neural tube defect cases in the United States could decrease by at least 50%. [CDC. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 1992; 41(RR-14)]

Although foods such as dark-green leafy vegetables provide a reasonable source of folic acid, most women don't reach the recommended 400mcg through diet alone. [Johnston RB, Staples DA. 1997. J Am Med Assoc 1997;278 (11): pp.892-3]

Neural tube defects: (spina bifida): In one study, women who consumed 400mcg of folic acid per day cut in half their chances of having babies with birth defects of the brain and spinal cord, such as spina bifida.  Whether a baby develops these defects is determined in the first days after conception (the critical time may be day 27-28) – perhaps before a woman knows she is pregnant.

In another study, one-half of women who had delivered children with spina bifida or anencephaly were found to have had a poor diet during the pregnancy which ended with a child with a neural tube defect.  103 of these women received dietary counseling prior to their next pregnancy while 71 controls received no counseling.  Of those who improved their diet, all delivered normal children, while all 8 out of 186 newborns with NTD were born to women who ate a poor diet during their first 6 months of pregnancy. [Laurence KM. Nutr Health 2( 3/ 4), 1983]

Scientists currently theorize that women who give birth to babies with neural tube defects are less able to convert homocysteine to methionine, and that high levels of homocysteine may cause birth defects.  Folic acid, along with vitamin B12, is required for this biochemical conversion, as well as new tissue production and growth in both baby and mother.

Downs: Mothers with a genetic abnormality that hinders how the body processes folic acid were 2.6 times more likely to have a child with Down syndrome than mothers without that genetic defect.  Millions of women appear to have this genetic abnormality, yet the risk of having a child with Down syndrome actually is small – one in 600 births.  If you have this mutation and you happen to have a very poor diet, it magnifies the problem; the researchers call this a gene-nutrient interaction.  The March of Dimes estimates there are 250,000 Americans with Down syndrome.  (American Journal of Clinical Nutrition October 1999)

Cleft palate: Only high pharmacological doses (6mg per day) of folic acid in the critical period of the primary and the secondary palate development seem to be effective for the reduction of clefts.  Doses less than 1mg of folic acid cannot reduce these birth defects.

Case Report: After giving birth, a woman developed severe depression, confusion, disorientation and hallucinations.  Over the next 19 months, trials with numerous medications and electroshock therapy were unsuccessful.  Folic acid deficiency was diagnosed and folate supplementation was started.  In 10 days, she was completely cured.

Many naturopathic and other doctors suggest using vitamin B complex (50mg per day) with additional vitamin B6 and folic acid (800 to 1000mcg per day) for women planning to become pregnant and for those who are pregnant.  These preventive measures are supported by studies that suggest a connection between recurring miscarriages and problems metabolizing methionine and homocysteine in the body.  Folic acid, vitamins B6 and B12, and betaine all play a role in the proper use of these compounds.

Several studies imply that harmful free radicals called lipid peroxides contribute to pre-eclampsia [Khan KS, Chien Pl. Brit J of Obst & Gyn 1997;104(10): pp.1173-9], and that women with this condition are low in the antioxidants that combat them. [Ziari SA, et al. Am Jl of Perinat 1996;13(5): pp.287-91]

The U.S. RDA is 10mg.

Several studies imply that harmful free radicals called lipid peroxides contribute to preeclampsia [Khan KS, Chien Pl. Brit J of Obst & Gyn 1997;104(10): pp.1173-9], and that women with this condition are low in the antioxidants that combat them. [Ziari SA, et al. Am Jl of Perinat 1996;13(5): pp.287-91]

In one study of over 300 consecutive births, the mothers were given 5gm of vitamin C in the first trimester, 10gm in the second and 15gm in the third.  Their babies were all born very healthy and the nurses often commented that the vitamin C babies and mothers were generally healthier than the non-vitamin C participants.

The U.S. RDA is 70mg.  NOTE: Be very careful to avoid high doses.

The U.S. RDA is 65mg.

The Children's Memorial Hospital in Chicago studied five vitamin D-deficient infants; at least two cases were caused by low vitamin D levels during pregnancy.  Health problems ranged from seizures and growth failure to rickets. [Daaboul J, et al. J of Perinat 1997;17(1): 10-4]  Congenital cataracts have also been linked to low levels of vitamin D. [Blau EB. The Lancet 1996;347: p.626]  Other research points to vitamin D as a possible adjunct therapy for premature babies with respiratory distress syndrome [Nguyen TM, et al. Am J of Physiol 1996; 271(3): L392-9] and for women with gestational diabetes. [Rudnicki PM, Molsted-Pedersen L. Diabetologia 1997; 40(1): 40-4]

The U.S. RDA is 400 IU or 10mg.

Vitamin B6 is necessary for optimal brain development and is an essential coenzyme for neurotransmitter synthesis. [Gerster II. Z. Ernahrungswiss 1996;35(4): pp.309-17]  One animal study found that vitamin B6 helped prevent the formation of cleft palates. [Jacobsson C, Granstrom G. Cleft Palate Craniofacial J 1997;34(2):95-100]  Like magnesium, vitamin B6, together with vitamin B1, may also ease pregnancy-related leg cramps. [Avsar AF, et al. Am J of Obst & Gyn 1996;175(1):233-4]

The U.S. RDA is 2.2mg.

Quercetin should be avoided during pregnancy.

Supplemental vitamin A palmitate (retinol) is contraindicated during pregnancy since it has been tied to birth defects.  NOTE: Be extremely careful to avoid high doses during pregnancy or if there is a likelihood of becoming pregnant soon.